To determine how contraceptive use influences women's participation in the labor market, and household decision making, researchers reviewed data on 4,617 married women, as well as in-depth interviews with 16 women and their husbands, and four community leaders, from the provinces of West Java and North Sumatra.

Indonesia

In Indonesia, the use of modern contraceptives among married women was nearly zero before the 1970s, but by 1994, it had increased to 55 percent. Many women with two or three children now say they want no additional children, suggesting the small family size is becoming the social norm in Indonesia. With increased contraceptive use and fewer children, it is hypothesized that women will be freed from some of their reproductive roles and will be able to participate more fully in the work force. Women's economic activity has been theorized to lead to greater autonomy in the home (defined as the bargaining power in household decision-making about such as matters as family spending, contraceptive use, and planning for the children's future).

Research Findings

To determine how contraceptive use influences women's participation in the labor market, researchers reviewed data on 4,617 married women, ages 15 to 49, from the 1993 Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS), a nationally representative survey of 7,700 households. To determine how contraceptive use and work influence the role of women in household decision-making, researchers conducted in-depth interviews with 16 women and their husbands, as well as four community leaders, from the provinces of West Java and North Sumatra.

• Survey data indicated that family planning use did not have a strong influence on women's work. Use of short-term methods, such as oral contraceptives and injectables, was not associated with women's work status. However, women who used long-term methods, such as sterilization and the IUD, were more likely to work for income and to work in the formal sector than women who did not use family planning and were at risk of pregnancy. Factors other than family planning tended to explain women's work status. For instance, women were more likely to work, to work in the formal sector, and to work more hours per week if they were over age 35, had at least a secondary education, and did not have a child under age six.

• In the in-depth interviews, both women and men expressed support for family planning and described various benefits of contraceptive use. Some women linked family planning directly with work opportunities.

• While many of the women interviewed worked for income, both women and their husbands said the family's economic well-being was primarily the responsibility of the husband. Almost all working women said they worked for economic reasons; most described their work as "helping" the husband support the family. A woman from North Sumatra explained, "I work to help my husband. He works as a driver, and we have four children ... His salary is not enough."

• In in-depth interviews, almost all the women and their husbands said the woman was responsible for controlling money for the family's daily expenses, regardless of her work status. A husband from West Java said, "It is mother who manages. I just give the money to her. That's the woman's business. Buying trousers, for example, I don't know. I just ask her to go buy them for me."

• In general, neither women's use or non-use of family planning nor their work outside the home altered their role in the household. Women's main duties, whether they earned income or not, were those of mother, wife, and housekeeper.

• Family planning is considered the norm. It is viewed as an important element in family harmony and good health, and as a vehicle for women's participation in activities outside the home. "The family planning program is well under way," said one community leader from rural West Java. "Most housewives have used contraception. Family planning helps mothers to have more leisure time for themselves, enabling them to participate in activities outside the house, to work for income and to do other social activities." A man in North Sumatra said, "Religious leaders have told the people, and they understand better about family planning It lengthens the birth interval."

Recommendations

Women who used long-term methods of family planning, such as the IUD and sterilization were more likely to work and to have a job in the formal sector. These women are likely to have attained their desired family size, and the Family Planning Program should focus on improved quality of care to ensure that these women do not experience unplanned pregnancies. An unplanned pregnancy may force a woman to leave her job, resulting in economic hardship for her family. Education is a key factor influencing whether women work and whether they find jobs in the formal sector. The Government of Indonesia should continue to encourage women to obtain as much education as possible, ideally through high school. Assuming the Indonesian economy recovers from its current crisis, this will make it easier for women to obtain work in the formal sector, where salaries are higher and job security is greater.

Study Details

Researchers responsible for this study were; Dr. Sri Moertiningsih Adioetomo, Dr. Rani Toersilaningsih, Dr. Asmanedi, Dr. Hendratno, Dr. Linda Fitriati of the Demographic Institute, University of Indonesia; Dr. Elizabeth Eggleston of Family Health International; Dr. Karen Hardee of The Futures Group International; and Dr. Terence Hull of the Australian National University. Research was supported by the Women's Studies Project at Family Health International, through a Cooperative Agreement funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development with field support from the USAID Mission in Jakarta.